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<body class="mediawiki ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Photovoltaic_module skin-monobook"> <div id="globalWrapper"> <div id="column-content"> <div id="content"> <a id="top"></a> <div id="siteNotice"><script type='text/javascript'>if (wgNotice != '') document.writeln(wgNotice);</script></div> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading">Photovoltaic module</h1> <div id="bodyContent"> <h3 id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</h3> <div id="contentSub"></div> <div id="jump-to-nav">Jump to: <a href="#column-one">navigation</a>, <a href="#searchInput">search</a></div>  <div class="dablink">"Solar panel" redirects here. For the heat collectors, see <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_collector" title="Solar thermal collector">Solar thermal collector</a>.</div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/wiki/File:SolarpanelBp.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/SolarpanelBp.JPG/180px-SolarpanelBp.JPG" width="180" height="101" class="thumbimage" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:SolarpanelBp.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" /></a></div> A photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. This crystalline-silicon module has an <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> frame and glass on the front.</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/wiki/File:ISS_solar_panel_intersecting_Earth%27s_horizon.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/ISS_solar_panel_intersecting_Earth%27s_horizon.jpg/180px-ISS_solar_panel_intersecting_Earth%27s_horizon.jpg" width="180" height="120" class="thumbimage" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:ISS_solar_panel_intersecting_Earth%27s_horizon.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" /></a></div> A PV module on the <a href="/wiki/ISS" title="ISS" class="mw-redirect">ISS</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p>A <b>photovoltaic module</b> or <b>photovoltaic panel</b> is a packaged interconnected assembly of <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell" title="Photovoltaic cell">photovoltaic cells</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a>. The photovoltaic module, known more commonly as the <b>solar panel</b>, is then used as a component in a larger photovoltaic system to offer electricity for commercial and residential applications.</p> <p>Because a single photovoltaic module can only produce a limited amount of power, many installations contain several modules or panels and this is known as a <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_array" title="Photovoltaic array">photovoltaic array</a>. A photovoltaic installation typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules or panels, an <a href="/wiki/Inverter_(electrical)" title="Inverter (electrical)">inverter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" title="Battery (electricity)">batteries</a> and interconnection wiring.</p> <p>Photovoltaic systems are used for either on- or <a href="/wiki/Off-grid" title="Off-grid" class="mw-redirect">off-grid</a> applications, and for <a href="/wiki/Solar_panels_on_spacecraft" title="Solar panels on spacecraft">solar panels on spacecraft</a>.</p> <table id="toc" class="toc"> <tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Theory_and_construction"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Theory and construction</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Thin-film_modules"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Thin-film modules</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Rigid_thin-film_modules"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Rigid thin-film modules</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Flexible_thin-film_modules"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Flexible thin-film modules</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Module_embedded_electronics"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Module embedded electronics</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Module_performance_and_lifetime"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Module performance and lifetime</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Price"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Price</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Standards"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Standards</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Solar_devices"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Solar devices</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> </ul> </td> </tr> </table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Theory and construction">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Theory_and_construction">Theory and construction</span></h2> <div class="rellink boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell" title="Photovoltaic cell">Photovoltaic cell</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Photovoltaic_panel_at_the_National_Solar_Energy_Center_in_Israel.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Photovoltaic_panel_at_the_National_Solar_Energy_Center_in_Israel.jpg/180px-Photovoltaic_panel_at_the_National_Solar_Energy_Center_in_Israel.jpg" width="180" height="240" class="thumbimage" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Photovoltaic_panel_at_the_National_Solar_Energy_Center_in_Israel.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" /></a></div> <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell" title="Photovoltaic cell">PV cells</a> in a panel.</div> </div> </div> <p>Solar panels use light energy (<a href="/wiki/Photons" title="Photons" class="mw-redirect">photons</a>) from the sun to generate electricity through <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">photovoltaic effect</a> (this is the photo-electric effect). The majority of modules use <a href="/wiki/Wafer" title="Wafer">wafer</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">crystalline silicon</a> cells or a <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_cell" title="Thin-film cell" class="mw-redirect">thin-film cell</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride" title="Cadmium telluride">cadmium telluride</a> or silicon. <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">Crystalline silicon</a>, which is commonly used in the wafer form in photovoltaic (PV) modules, is derived from silicon, a commonly used semi-conductor.</p> <p>In order to use the cells in practical applications, they must be:</p> <ul> <li>connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system</li> <li>protected from mechanical damage during manufacture, transport, installation and use (in particular against <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</a> impact, wind and snow loads). This is especially important for wafer-based silicon cells which are <a href="/wiki/Brittle" title="Brittle" class="mw-redirect">brittle</a>.</li> <li>protected from moisture, which corrodes metal contacts and interconnects, (and for <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_cell" title="Thin-film cell" class="mw-redirect">thin-film cells</a> the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transparent_conductive_oxide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transparent conductive oxide (page does not exist)">transparent conductive oxide</a> <a href="/wiki/Layer" title="Layer">layer</a>) thus decreasing performance and lifetime.</li> </ul> <p>Most modules are usually rigid, but there are some flexible modules available, based on thin-film cells.</p> <p>Electrical connections are made in <a href="/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits#Series_circuits" title="Series and parallel circuits">series</a> to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in <a href="/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits#Parallel_circuits" title="Series and parallel circuits">parallel</a> to provide a desired amount of current source capability.</p> <p><a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">Diodes</a> are included to avoid overheating of cells in case of partial <a href="/wiki/Shading" title="Shading">shading</a>. Since cell heating reduces the operating efficiency it is desirable to minimize the heating. Very few modules incorporate any design features to decrease temperature, however installers try to provide good ventilation behind the module.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>New designs of module include <a href="/wiki/Concentrator" title="Concentrator">concentrator</a> modules in which the light is concentrated by an array of <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" title="Lens (optics)">lenses</a> or mirrors onto an array of small cells. This allows the use of cells with a very high-cost per unit area (such as <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide" class="mw-redirect">gallium arsenide</a>) in a cost-competitive way.</p> <p>Depending on construction the photovoltaic can cover a range of <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequencies of light</a> and can produce electricity from them, but sometimes cannot cover the entire solar spectrum (specifically, <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> and low or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Diffuse_light&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diffuse light (page does not exist)">diffused light</a>). Hence much of incident <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> energy is wasted when used for solar panels, although they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to the appropriate wavelength ranges. <sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> This is projected to raise efficiency by 50%. Also, the use of <a href="/wiki/Infrared_photovoltaic_cell" title="Infrared photovoltaic cell" class="mw-redirect">infrared photovoltaic cells</a> can increase the efficiencies, producing power at night.</p> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sunlight_conversion_rate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sunlight conversion rate (page does not exist)">Sunlight conversion rates</a> (module efficiencies) can vary from 5-18% in commercial production (solar panels), that can be lower than cell conversion.</p> <p>A group of researchers at <a href="/wiki/MIT" title="MIT" class="mw-redirect">MIT</a> has recently developed a process to improve the efficiency of <a href="/wiki/Luminescent_solar_concentrator" title="Luminescent solar concentrator" class="mw-redirect">luminescent solar concentrator</a> (LSC) technology, which redirects light along a <a href="/wiki/Translucent" title="Translucent" class="mw-redirect">translucent</a> material to PV-modules located along its edge. The researchers have suggested that efficiency may be improved by a factor of 10 over the old design in as little as three years (it has been estimated that this will provide a conversion rate of 30%). Three of the researchers involved have now started their own company, called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Covalent_Solar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Covalent Solar (page does not exist)">Covalent Solar</a>, to manufacture and sell their innovation in PV-modules. <sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The current market leader in efficient solar energy modules is <a href="/wiki/SunPower" title="SunPower">SunPower</a>, whose solar panels have a conversion ratio of 19.3%<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup>. However, a whole range of other companies (<a href="/w/index.php?title=HoloSun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HoloSun (page does not exist)">HoloSun</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamma_Solar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gamma Solar (page does not exist)">Gamma Solar</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=NanoHorizons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NanoHorizons (page does not exist)">NanoHorizons</a>) are emerging which are also offering new innovations in photovoltaic modules, with a conversion ratio of around 18%. These new innovations include power generation on the front and back sides and increased outputs; however, most of these companies have not yet produced working systems from their design plans, and are mostly still actively improving the technology. As of August 26, 2009 a world record efficiency level of 41.6% has been reached. <sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup>.</p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Thin-film modules">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Thin-film_modules">Thin-film modules</span></h2> <div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Thin_film" title="Thin film">Thin film</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_generation_solar_cell" title="Third generation solar cell" class="mw-redirect">Third generation solar cell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Low-cost_photovoltaic_cell" title="Low-cost photovoltaic cell">Low-cost photovoltaic cell</a></div> <p>Third generation solar cells are advanced thin-film cells. They produce high-efficiency conversion at low cost.</p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rigid thin-film modules">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Rigid_thin-film_modules">Rigid thin-film modules</span></h3> <p>In <b>rigid thin film modules</b>, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same production line.</p> <p>The cell is created directly on a glass <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(materials_science)" title="Substrate (materials science)" class="mw-redirect">substrate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Superstrate" title="Superstrate" class="mw-redirect">superstrate</a>, and the electrical connections are created <i>in situ</i>, a so called "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Monolithic_integration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Monolithic integration (page does not exist)">monolithic integration</a>". The substrate or superstrate is <a href="/wiki/Laminated" title="Laminated" class="mw-redirect">laminated</a> with an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Encapsulant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Encapsulant (page does not exist)">encapsulant</a> to a front or back <a href="/wiki/Sheet" title="Sheet">sheet</a>, usually another sheet of glass.</p> <p>The main cell technologies in this category are <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride" title="Cadmium telluride">CdTe</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">a-Si</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Micromorphous_silicon" title="Micromorphous silicon" class="mw-redirect">a-Si+uc-Si tandem</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide" title="Copper indium gallium selenide">CIGS</a> (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion rate of 6-12%.</p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Flexible thin-film modules">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Flexible_thin-film_modules">Flexible thin-film modules</span></h3> <p><b>Flexible thin film</b> cells and modules are created on the same production line by depositing the <a href="/wiki/Photoactive_layer" title="Photoactive layer">photoactive layer</a> and other necessary <a href="/wiki/Layer" title="Layer">layers</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Flexible_substrate" title="Flexible substrate" class="mw-redirect">flexible substrate</a>.</p> <p>If the substrate is an <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electrical)" title="Insulator (electrical)">insulator</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Polyester" title="Polyester">polyester</a> or <a href="/wiki/Polyimide" title="Polyimide">polyimide</a> film) then <a href="/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)" title="Die (integrated circuit)">monolithic</a> integration can be used.</p> <p>If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be used.</p> <p>The cells are assembled into modules by <a href="/wiki/Laminating" title="Laminating" class="mw-redirect">laminating</a> them to a transparent colourless <a href="/wiki/Fluoropolymer" title="Fluoropolymer">fluoropolymer</a> on the front side (typically <a href="/wiki/ETFE" title="ETFE">ETFE</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fluorinated_ethylene_propylene" title="Fluorinated ethylene propylene">FEP</a>) and a polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other side. The only commercially available (in MW quantities) flexible module uses <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">amorphous silicon</a> <a href="/wiki/Triple_junction" title="Triple junction">triple junction</a> (from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Unisolar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unisolar (page does not exist)">Unisolar</a>).</p> <p>So-called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Inverted_metamorphic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inverted metamorphic (page does not exist)">inverted metamorphic</a> (IMM) <a href="/wiki/Multijunction_solar_cell" title="Multijunction solar cell" class="mw-redirect">multijunction solar cells</a> made on <a href="/wiki/Compound_semiconductor" title="Compound semiconductor">compound-semiconductor technology</a> are just becoming commercialized in July 2008. The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Solar_car" title="Solar car" class="mw-redirect">solar car</a> that won the <a href="/w/index.php?title=North_American_Solar_challenge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="North American Solar challenge (page does not exist)">North American Solar challenge</a> in July 2008 used IMM thin-film flexible solar cells.</p> <p>The requirements for residental and commercial are different in that the residental needs are simple and can be packaged so that as technology at the solar cell progress, the other base line equipment such as the battery, inverter and voltage sensing transfer switch still need to be compacted and unitized for residental use. Commercial use, depending on the size of the service will be limited in the photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex parabolic reflectors and solar concentrators are becoming the dominant technology.</p> <p>The global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution in the overall PV industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to 2019, surpassing 32GW according to a major new study by IntertechPira.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Module embedded electronics">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Module_embedded_electronics">Module embedded electronics</span></h2> <p>Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This enables performing Maximum Power Point Tracking (<a href="/wiki/MPPT" title="MPPT" class="mw-redirect">MPPT</a>) for each module individually, and the measurement of performance data for monitoring and fault detection at module level. Some of these solutions make use of <a href="/wiki/Power_optimizer" title="Power optimizer">Power Optimizers</a>, a DC to DC converter technology developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems.</p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Module performance and lifetime">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Module_performance_and_lifetime">Module performance and lifetime</span></h2> <p>Module performance is generally rated under <b>Standard Test Conditions (STC)</b> : <a href="/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance">irradiance</a> of 1,000 <a href="/wiki/W/m2" title="W/m2" class="mw-redirect">W/m�</a>, solar <a href="/wiki/Spectrum" title="Spectrum">spectrum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Airmass" title="Airmass">AM</a> 1.5 and module temperature at 25�C.</p> <p>Electrical characteristics include <a href="/wiki/Nominal_power" title="Nominal power">nominal power</a> (P<sub>MAX</sub>, measured in <a href="/wiki/W" title="W">W</a>), <a href="/wiki/Open_circuit_voltage" title="Open circuit voltage" class="mw-redirect">open circuit voltage</a> (V<sub>OC</sub>), <a href="/wiki/Short_circuit_current" title="Short circuit current" class="mw-redirect">short circuit current</a> (I<sub>SC</sub>, measured in <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">Amperes</a>), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maximum_power_voltage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maximum power voltage (page does not exist)">maximum power voltage</a> (V<sub>MPP</sub>), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maximum_power_current&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maximum power current (page does not exist)">maximum power current</a> (I<sub>MPP</sub>) and module efficiency (%).</p> <p>In kWp, kW is kilowatt and the p means �peak� as peak performance. The �p� however does not show the peak performance, but rather the maximum output according to STC <sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>Solar panels must withstand heat, cold, rain and <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</a> for many years. Many <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">Crystalline silicon</a> module manufacturers offer warranties that guarantee electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated power output and 25 years at 80% <sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Price">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Price">Price</span></h2> <p>Average pricing information divides in three pricing categories: those buying small quantities (modules of all sizes in the kilowatt range annually), mid-range buyers (typically up to 10<a href="/wiki/MWp" title="MWp" class="mw-redirect">MWp</a> annually), and large quantity buyers (self explanatory -- and with access to the lowest prices).Over the long term -- and only in the long-term -- there is clearly a systematic reduction in the price of cells and modules. For example in 1998 it was estimated that the quantity cost per watt was about $4.5, which was 33 times lower than the cost in 1970 of $150.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> The trend is "lowering costs -- now there is a rational war worth fighting". <sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Standards">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Standards">Standards</span></h2> <p>Standard generally used in photovoltaic panels:</p> <ul> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission" title="International Electrotechnical Commission">IEC</a> 61215 (crystalline silicon performance), 61646 (thin film performance) and 61730 (all modules, safety)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%9CV" title="T�V" class="mw-redirect">T�V</a> Safety Class II (now replaced by IEC 61730)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwriters_Laboratories" title="Underwriters Laboratories">UL</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=UL_1703&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UL 1703 (page does not exist)">1703</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CE_mark" title="CE mark">CE mark</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_Safety_Tester&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Electrical Safety Tester (page does not exist)">Electrical Safety Tester</a> (EST) Series (EST-460, EST-22V, EST-22H, EST-110).</li> </ul> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Solar devices">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Solar_devices">Solar devices</span></h2> <div class="rellink">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Solar_charger" title="Solar charger">Solar charger</a></div> <p>Electric devices that includes solar panels:</p> <ul> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_cell_phone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Solar cell phone (page does not exist)">Solar cell phone</a> : <a href="/wiki/Sharp_Corporation" title="Sharp Corporation">Sharp</a> announced that its first solar-powered cell phone will be released in 2009 this summer.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_lamp" title="Solar lamp">Solar lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_notebook&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Solar notebook (page does not exist)">Solar notebook</a>: iUnika makes the first Solar Powered Netbook, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Meet_Gyy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meet Gyy (page does not exist)">Meet Gyy</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-pumped_laser" title="Solar-pumped laser">Solar-pumped laser</a></li> </ul> <table class="metadata plainlinks ambox mbox-small-left ambox-notice" style=""> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="image"><img alt="Wiki letter w.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" width="20" height="20" /></a></td> <td class="mbox-text" style="">This section requires <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit" class="external text" rel="nofollow">expansion</a>.</td> </tr> </table> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2> <div class="noprint tright portal" style="border:solid #aaa 1px;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0.5em;"> <table style="background:#f9f9f9; font-size:85%; line-height:110%;"> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Portal.svg" class="image"><img alt="Portal.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Portal.svg/28px-Portal.svg.png" width="28" height="28" /></a></td> <td style="padding:0 0.2em;"><i><b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy portal</a></b></i></td> </tr> </table> </div> <ul> <li><a href="/wiki/Building-integrated_photovoltaic" title="Building-integrated photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect">Building-integrated photovoltaic</a> (BIPV).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaning_event" title="Cleaning event">Cleaning event</a> (Mars Exploration Rover phenomenon)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_inverter_architecture" title="Distributed inverter architecture" class="mw-redirect">Distributed inverter architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_energy_consumption" title="Domestic energy consumption">Domestic energy consumption</a>; supplies energy requirement numbers for private homes which is needed for anyone thinking of installing their own PV solar panels</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulated_glazing" title="Insulated glazing">Insulated glazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_Law" title="Moore's Law" class="mw-redirect">Moore's Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a> eg applications</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_array" title="Photovoltaic array">Photovoltaic array</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_cells" title="Photovoltaic cells" class="mw-redirect">Photovoltaic cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaics_companies" title="List of photovoltaics companies">List of photovoltaics companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_roadway" title="Solar roadway">Solar roadway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UV_degradation" title="UV degradation">UV degradation</a></li> </ul> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2> <table class="metadata plainlinks mbox-small" style="border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9;"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"><a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Photovoltaic_module" title="Search Wikimedia Commons"><img alt="Search Wikimedia Commons" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="40" height="54" /></a></td> <td class="mbox-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" title="Wikimedia Commons">Wikimedia Commons</a> has media related to: <b><i><a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Photovoltaics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a> </i></b></td> </tr> </table> <ul> <li><a href="http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/06/the-next-solar-frontier-distributed-inverter-architecture?cmpid=WNL-Wednesday-June24-2009" class="external text" rel="nofollow">The Next Solar Frontier: Distributed Inverter Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.solardesigntool.com/compare-solar-panels-modules.html" class="external text" rel="nofollow">Solar Panel Comparison Tool</a> - website that allows people to compare the specifications sheets of various photovoltaic modules. One can also use the website to filter and search panels by technical data.</li> <li><a href="http://www.mysolar2020.com/wpenergy/" class="external text" rel="nofollow">Solar Panel Savings Measurement Tool</a> - website that allows people to check how much will they save by installing solar panels. To calculate the savings, the website considers the square feet area currently available to install solar panels, available sunlight and its intensity in each state in each month of the year, and the energy (kWh) the consumer is currently consuming.</li> </ul> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2> <div class="references-small"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-0"><b><a href="#cite_ref-0">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/diode.htm" class="external free" rel="nofollow">http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/diode.htm</a></li> <li id="cite_note-1"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.arpa.mil/sto/smallunitops/vhesc.html" class="external text" rel="nofollow">STO: Very High Efficient Solar Cells</a></li> <li id="cite_note-2"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> <a href="http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0710-hance_solar.html" class="external text" rel="nofollow">Breakthrough in solar energy: ten times more effective solar power may be available in three years</a></li> <li id="cite_note-3"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.sunpowercorp.com/Products-and-Services/~/media/Downloads/for_products_services/spwr_315ewh_com_en.ashxt" class="external free" rel="nofollow">http://www.sunpowercorp.com/Products-and-Services/~/media/Downloads/for_products_services/spwr_315ewh_com_en.ashxt</a></li> <li id="cite_note-4"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> <a href="http://boeing.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=810" class="external free" rel="nofollow">http://boeing.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=810</a></li> <li id="cite_note-5"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> <span class="citation web">"<a href="http://globalsolartechnology.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3981&Itemid=9" class="external text" rel="nofollow">Global flexible and thin-film PV market expected to reach US$58b in 2019,reports by IntertechPira study</a>" (html). Globalsolartechnology. 2009-09-11<span class="printonly">. <a href="http://globalsolartechnology.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3981&Itemid=9" class="external free" rel="nofollow">http://globalsolartechnology.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3981&Itemid=9</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Global+flexible+and+thin-film+PV+market+expected+to+reach+US%2458b+in+2019%2Creports+by+IntertechPira+study&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2009-09-11&rft.pub=Globalsolartechnology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglobalsolartechnology.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D3981%26Itemid%3D9&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Photovoltaic_module"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-6"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.solarworld.de/Solar-ABC.123.0.html?&L=1" class="external free" rel="nofollow">http://www.solarworld.de/Solar-ABC.123.0.html?&L=1</a></li> <li id="cite_note-7"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.ibersolar.com/admin/uploads/archivos/425/E-FV069.pdf" class="external free" rel="nofollow">http://www.ibersolar.com/admin/uploads/archivos/425/E-FV069.pdf</a></li> <li id="cite_note-8"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.cti-solar.com/userfiles/file/brochlet%20CTI-SOLAR%20vers%20EN.pdf" class="external free" rel="nofollow">http://www.cti-solar.com/userfiles/file/brochlet%20CTI-SOLAR%20vers%20EN.pdf</a></li> <li id="cite_note-9"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.pvsolarpanels.net/detail127886-monocrystallinewaterproofsolarpanel.htm" class="external free" rel="nofollow">http://www.pvsolarpanels.net/detail127886-monocrystallinewaterproofsolarpanel.htm</a></li> <li id="cite_note-10"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=FJEuCAXw8B8C&lpg=PA162&dq=%22solar%20panel%20cost%20per%20watt%22&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q=&f=true" class="external autonumber" rel="nofollow">[1]</a></li> <li id="cite_note-11"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/09/module-pricing-rational-or-just-plain-nuts?cmpid=WNL-Friday-September25-2009" class="external free" rel="nofollow">http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/09/module-pricing-rational-or-just-plain-nuts?cmpid=WNL-Friday-September25-2009</a></li> <li id="cite_note-12"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> <a href="http://setenergy.org/2009/04/21/transition-from-coal-to-solar-powered-cell-phones-this-summer/" class="external free" rel="nofollow">http://setenergy.org/2009/04/21/transition-from-coal-to-solar-powered-cell-phones-this-summer/</a></li> <li id="cite_note-13"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.pcworld.com/article/164943/meet_gyy_the_first_solar_powered_netbook.html" class="external free" rel="nofollow">http://www.pcworld.com/article/164943/meet_gyy_the_first_solar_powered_netbook.html</a></li> </ol> </div>   <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_module">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_module</a>"</div> <div id='catlinks' class='catlinks'><div id="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Special:Categories" title="Special:Categories">Categories</a>: <span dir='ltr'><a href="/wiki/Category:Photovoltaics" title="Category:Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a></span> | <span dir='ltr'><a href="/wiki/Category:Solar_devices" title="Category:Solar devices">Solar devices</a></span></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <span dir='ltr'><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_to_be_expanded" title="Category:Articles to be expanded">Articles to be expanded</a></span> | <span dir='ltr'><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_to_be_expanded" title="Category:All articles to be expanded">All articles to be expanded</a></span></div></div>  <div class="visualClear"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="column-one"> <div id="p-cactions" class="portlet"> <h5>Views</h5> <div class="pBody"> <ul lang="en" xml:lang="en"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_module" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li> <li id="ca-talk"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Photovoltaic_module" title="Discussion about the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Discussion</a></li> <li id="ca-edit"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaic_module&action=edit" title="You can edit this page. 
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